Reasons for low birth rate in a developed country.

Question (4 marks): Explain two reasons why birth rates are low in a developed country you have studied.

Mark scheme (4 marks — AO2, level-marked):

• Level 2 (3–4 marks): two clear, developed reasons with specific reference to the named country (Japan).
• Level 1 (1–2 marks): generic statements with little case-study detail.

Indicative content for Japan:

1. Cost of living and housing — average Tokyo apartment costs ¥70 m; couples delay or avoid having children due to economic pressure (shōshika phenomenon).
2. Female workforce participation — over 60% of Japanese women are in employment; mean age of first birth is 31; long karōshi working hours leave little time for family.
3. Cultural stigma around children outside marriage (2.3% of births) restricts the pool of potential mothers.
4. Limited childcare provision until the Angel Plan (1994).

Maximum 2 marks if only one reason is developed.